WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

Distribution system is a network of pipelines that distribute water to the consumers. They are designed to adequately satisfy the water requirement for a combination of:

o Domestic

o Commercial

o Industrial

o Fire fighting purposes.

A good distribution system should satisfy the followings:

o Adequate water pressure at the consumer's taps for a specific rate of flow (i.e, pressures should be great enough to adequately meet consumer needs).

o Pressures should be great enough to adequately meet fire fighting needs.

o At the same time, pressures should not be excessive because development of the pressure head brings important cost consideration and as pressure increases leakages increases too.

Note: In tower buildings, it is often necessary to provide booster pumps to elevate the water to upper floors.

o Purity of distributed water should be maintained. This requires distribution system to be completely water-tight.

o Maintenance of the distribution system should be easy and economical.

o Water should remain available during breakdown periods of pipeline. System of distribution should not such that if one pipe bursts, it puts a large area without water. If a particular pipe length is under repair and has been shut down, the water to the population living in the down-stream side of this pipeline should be available from other pipeline.

o During repairs, it should not cause any obstruction to traffic. In other words, the pipelines should not be laid under highways, carriage ways but below foot paths.

SINGLE-LOG

Single-Log

Macamana boleh terjadi
Jika tidak kita yang inginkan
Macamana ianya terjadi
Jika tidak kita yang jadikan

Mungkin  kita sudah terlupa
Yang terkadang kita jadi pelupa
Mungkin juga lupa apa yang terlupa
Yang terlupa mudah menjadi lupa

Apa kita boleh buat
Jika kita terdepan kecemasan
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Entah apa yang aku fikirkan
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Fakulti Engineering - 1143H

FMEA - what it is?

Type of FMEA

There are three main types of FMEA in use today.

1.    System FMEA: Used to analyze complete systems and/or sub-systems during the concept of design stage.

2.    Design FMEA: Used the analyze a product design before it is released to manufacturing.

3.    Process FMEA:  Used to analyze manufacturing and/or assembly process.

The Process FMEA is probably the most commonly used and is also the least complex, in most cases.

10 steps to creating a FMEA

1.    List the key process steps in the first column.  These may come from the highest ranked items of your C&E matrix.

2.    List the potential failure mode for each process step.  In other words, figure out how this process step or input could go wrong.

3.    List the effects of this failure mode. If the failure mode occurs what does this mean to us and our customer… in short what is the effect?

4.    Rate how severe this effect is with 1 being not severe at all and 10 being extremely severe.  Ensure the team understands and agrees to the scale before you start.  Also, make this ranking system “your own” and don’t bother trying to copy it out of a book.

5.    Identify the causes of the failure mode/effect and rank it as you did the effects in the occurence column.  This time, as the name implies, we are scoring how likely this cause will occur.  So, 1 means it is highly unlikely to ever occur and 10 means we expect it to happen all the time.

6.    Identify the controls in place to detect the issue and rank its effectiveness in the detection column.  Here a score of 1 would mean we have excellent controls and 10 would mean we have no controls or extremely weak controls.  If a SOP is noted here (a weak control in my opinion) you should note the SOP number.

7.    Multiply the severity, occurrence, and detection numbers and store this value in the RPN (risk priority number) column.  This is the key number that will be used to identify where the team should focus first.  If, for example, we had a severity of 10 (very severe), occurrence of 10 (happens all the time), and detection of 10 (cannot detect it) our RPN is 1000.  This means all hands on deck… we have a serious issue!

8.    Sort by RPN number and identify most critical issues.  The team must decide where to focus first.

9.    Assign specific actions with responsible persons.  Also, be sure to include the date for when this action is expected to be complete.

10. Once actions have been completed, re-score the occurrence and detection. In most cases we will not change the severity score unless the customer decides this is not an important issue.

Monolog

Monolog

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Terkadang aku sendiri
Bukan kerna aku selfi

Acapkali aku mendengar
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Kurang sekali jarang dengar
Kurang sekali terlupa dengar

Mungkin aku perlu sendiri
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Atau perlu aku kembali
Mencari erti realiti

Prosedur penggubalan undang-undang di Malaysia

Prosedur penggubalan undang-undang di Malaysia

Malaysia mengamalkan sistem Demokrasi Berparlimen di bawah pentadbiran Raja Berperlembagaan dengan Seri Paduka Baginda Yang Di-Pertuan Agong sebagai Ketua Negara. Perlembagaan negara telah digubal dengan mengadakan syarat-syarat untuk pengalaman sistem ini. Salah satu syarat sistem Demokrasi Berparlimen adalah pembahagian kuasa kepada tiga bahagian di dalam pemerintahan, iaitu Perundangan, Kehakiman dan Pentadbiran atau Eksekutif. Di dalam sistem pemerintahan Negera Malaysia, Parlimen memiliki kuasa untuk menggubal undang-undang. Oleh itu Dewan Perundangan Persekutuan ialah Parlimen. Kuasa Perundangan ini diberikan mengikut Perkara 44 Perlembagaan Persekutuan yang terdiri daripada Yang Dipertuan Agong, Dewan Negara dan Dewan Rakyat. Kedua-dua Majlis Parlimen memainkan peranan yang penting dalam proses perundangan.

Di Malaysia sesuatu Rang Undang-undang boleh dikuatkuasakan setelah melalui satu prosedur penggubalan undang-undang. Tugas menggubal undang-undang yang terletak pada badan perundangan meliputi tugas untuk meminda perlembagaan, meluluskan undang-undang baru, memansuhkan undang-undang lama dan baru serta mengesahkan undang-undang yang sedang berjalan. Kesemua proses ini berlaku dalam badan perundangan mengikut prosedur perundangan yang ditetapkan dimana Yang Dipertuan Agong akan memperkenankan Rang-Undang-undang tersebut setelah dibentang dan dibahaskan di Dewan Rakyat dan Dewan Negara . Sebagai peraturan umum, Parlimen berkuasa untuk membuat undang-undang bagi keseluruhan Persekutuan atau mana-mana bahagian. Parlimen Persekutuan mempunyai kuasa perundangan ke atas kebanyakan perkara penting seperti kewangan, perdagangan dan perusahaan, pendidikan, pertahanan dan hal ehwal luar.

DEWAN NEGARA

Dewan Negara adalah komponen kedua dalam Parlimen Malaysia. Ia adalah Majlis Tertinggi atau Senat. Dewan Negara adalah perlu bagi membahaskan sesuatu rang undang-undang dengan lebih halus dan terperinci. Ia juga bertanggungjawab membincangkan perkara-perkara yang menjadi kepentingan umum. Mengikut Perlembagaan Persekutuan Perkara 45, keanggotaan ahli Dewan Negara terdiri daripada seramai 70 orang ahli. Ahli Dewan Negara juga dipanggil Senator. 

DEWAN RAKYAT

Dewan Rakyat adalah komponen ketiga dalam Parlimen Malaysia. Ia merupakan satu majlis khas untuk rakyat menyuarakan hasrat dan pendapat serta mendapatkan pembelaan menerusi wakil-wakil rakyat mereka. Kesemua Ahli Dewan Rakyat dipilih menerusi Piliharaya. Setiap ahli akan mewakili satu kawasan pilihanraya iaitu kawasan pilhanraya Dewan Rakyat. Ahli Dewan Rakyat tidak boleh mewakili dua kawasan Dewan Rakyat atau menjadi ahli Dewan Negara dan ahli Dewan Rakyat dalam tempoh atau yang sama, atau menjadi Ahli Dewan Negara mewakili dua negeri atau menjadi ahli Dewan Negara secara perlantikan dan pilihan di dalm negeri di dalam tempoh waktu yang sama. 

PERSIDANGAN DEWAN 

Parlimen akan bersidang apabila dipanggil oleh Yang Dipertuan Agong. Ia tidak boleh dibiarkan selama enam bulan berselang di antara mesyuarat akhir bagi satu penggal dengan mesyuarat bagi penggal yang akan datang. Parlimen akan kekal untuk lima tahun daripada nya yang pertama. Apabila genap lima tahun, Parlimen akan bubar dengan sendirinya melainkan sebelum cukup tempuh ia dibubarkan oleh Yang Dipertuan Agong. Setelah Parlimen dibubarkan, pilihanraya umum akan diadakan dal tempoh 60 hari dari tarikh pembubaran bagi Semenanjung dan 90 hari bagi Sabah dan Sarawak. Parlimen hendaklah dipanggil bersidang tidak lewat 120 hari selepas tarikh pembubarannya.

Semua mesyuarat Parlimen disusun di dalam satu kalendar yang dinamakan Takwim Parlimen. Kalendar ini dibahagikan kepada lima penggal dan setiap penggal mengambil masa selama satu tahun. Parlimen tidak bersidang di sepanjang penggal tetapi mengadakan mesyuarat sebanyak tiga atau empat kali dalm satu penggal. Setiap satu mesyuarat mengambil masa selama dua minggu bagi Dewan Rakyat manakala Dewan Negara pula memakan masa selama satu minggu kecuali mesyuarat belanjawan yang mengambil mnasa selama lima atau enam minggu.

Advanced Water Pressure Management

Advanced Water Pressure Management

Water Loss Reduction through Pressure Management

In 1997, El Nino triggered a serious water crisis in the Malaysian state of Selangor. An estimated 40% of water produced was not invoiced, with leakage estimated at 25% or half a million cubic meters per day. Halving the amount of physical losses would provide sufficient water to serve the equivalent of 1.5 million people and thereby avert a water shortage in Kuala Lumpur. The state government worked closely with a consortium led by a local firm in joint venture with an international operator. The contractor committed itself to reducing NRW (non-revenue water loss) by a specified amount. To date, the project has met with phenomenal success.

 

In Toronto, Canada, 8% of the utility’s water is lost, which is the equivalent of 15 Olympic–sized swimming pools every day (Clarke, Canada). This figure is not unusual and it is likely a lower percentage than most North American cities. On a global basis, it is estimated that 33 billion cubic meters of treated water is lost at an estimated cost of $15 billion US per year. North America seems to be lagging behind in its awareness of this issue but is gradually catching up to the rest of the world.

There are three components of non-revenue water. Physical (real) losses consist of leakage from the system and overflows at the utility’s storage tanks. They are caused by poor operations and maintenance, inadequate leakage control, and poor quality of underground assets. Commercial (apparent) losses are caused by customer meter under-registration and data handling errors as well as various forms of theft. Unbilled authorized consumption includes water used by the utility for operational purposes, water used for fire fighting, and water provided free to certain consumer groups.

Pressure Management Benefits

Leakage Reduction – If you have a leaking garden hose that has a pressure of 60 psi (4 Bar) and then you reduce the pressure to 30 psi (2 Bar), you will lose less water through that leak. The same principle we holds true in water utility’s distribution system. It is a well-known fact that if you decrease pressure within your system, you will reduce water loss. By reducing pressure by 1%, you will reduce leakage rates by 1.15% (variances can apply). The question is by how much are you able to reduce your pressure while maintaining adequate pressure to your customers. The resulting water loss savings relating to main and service lines can be incredible in both volume and cost.

i2o System Monitors and Control

The i2o system monitors and controls water pressure throughout a zone or network, and allows water companies to do two revolutionary things:

a)      Optimize water pressure continuously and automatically to meet agreed customer services levels throughout the network; and

b)      Adjust water pressure levels in any part of your network with a tap of the keyboard from any internet connection.

Advanced pressure management is achieved either by controlling PRVs in water zones or by controlling pumps feeding the network. We call the first PRV Control, and the second Pump Control. Pump Control allows water networks without PRVs (or networks already optimized at the water zone level) to achieve greater benefits from Advanced Pressure Management.

Advances Pressure Control

Pressure management is one of the most cost effective ways to control the amount of water lost in a system. This can implemented without affecting service levels when activated during off peak demand. It can also reduce consumption in networks. A small reduction in pressure can mean a significant reduction in real losses through leaks, a reduction in bursts and the extension of asset life.

Advanced pressure control is a simple cost effective adaption to an existing pressure control valve potentially yielding fantastic results with short payback periods. A simple interface and intelligent control system is able to be configured for Time, Flow or Closed loop control within single or multi feed networks.

Time Control

Pressure in the networks is modulated throughout the day from peak to minimum demand. The calculated profile (1 day or 7 day) based on historic data is tuned to give adequate pressure at the most critical points across the network. Pressure is typically reduced most at night during low demand periods and raised during the day to meet peak flow and overcome network head-loss.

Flow Modulation

Based on historic data a relationship of Pressure V Flow is programmed into the controller where the pressure supplied into the network is enough to overcome the head-losses for any given flow demand. The controller continually measures the flow rate and controls the supply pressure accordingly to ensure adequate pressure at the most critical points within the network. This technique will respond automatically to demand throughout the day.

Advanced pressure management at the PRV integrates hardware and software to optimize the pressure within a zone. The i2o designed this solution with one goal in mind: deliver the required level of water pressure, no more and no less, adapting throughout the day to actual usage and pressure needs. Unlike PRVs alone, which have fixed outlet pressures; our solutions continuously adjust the PRV outlet pressure according to each zone’s specific and current needs. The solution is made possible through the combination of:

1.   The careful monitoring of flow and pressure by i2o’s robust advanced loggers;

2.  Remote and automated control of pressure via the i2o controller and advanced pilot valve;

3.  Software that continuously learns and characteristics of the network, enabling the optimum PRV outlet pressure to be set to meet pressure requirements under all demand conditions, and

4.  An intuitive online user interface where managers can track their zones’ performance, respond to alarms and adjust pressure settings and schedules from their desktop.

In operating, PRV control smoothly and automatically raises and lowers the pressure delivered by the PRV throughout the day. The result: pressures in the zone are kept to a minimum while ensuring that there is adequate pressure for customers at all times, infrastructure is protected, and leakage, burst frequency expenses all drop significantly.

Closed Loop Control

The ultimate in advanced pressure control. This technique can be used on single or multiple feed networks and can deal simultaneously with several critical points, meeting the requirements of each. Advanced pressure controllers are install and commissioned on each PRV and remote control data logger installed at the critical points. A target pressure or pressure profile is determined at the critical points. Using the GSM network as a communications medium, control messages are sent from the critical point to the controllers adjusting the supply pressure to ensure optimized pressure all the time.

Balancing the supplies on multi-feed networks is possible, as is remote communications to change target pressure at any time or manual system control.

Example Of Risk Assessment Report

Example Of Risk Assessment Report

1.0 Introduction

a)      Facility setting and operational history;

b)      Objectives and scope; and

c)      Approaches and methodology.

2.0 Contaminants And Areas Of Concern

a)      Site data review and screening;

b)      Chemicals of potential concern; and

c)       Subareas or unit of interest.

3.0 Toxicity Or Dose Response Assessment

a)      Land use and exposure reaction; and

b)      Toxicity data for chemical concerns.

4          4.0 Exposure Assessment

a)      Land use and exposure response;

b)      Exposure pathways and potential receptors; and

c)      Exposure quantification.

5          5.0 Health Risk Characterization

a)      Cancer and non-cancer risks;

b)      Major contributor of risks; and

c)      Population risks and public health.

6          6.0 Safety Risk Screening

a)      Hazardous material; and

b)      Hazardous structure and conditions.

7          7.0 Public Welfare

a)      Restriction on public resource use; and

b)      Nuisance condition.

8          8.0 Uncertainty And Sensitivity Analysis

9          9.0 Preliminary Risk Management Goals

1          10.0 References

       11.0 Appendixes

Risk Assessment

1Risk Assessment

Risk assessment can be defined as the process of estimating the probability of occurrence of an event and the probable magnitude of adverse effect-safety, health, ecological or financial – over a specified time period (Rao V. Kolluru). Risk assessment can be divide into five (5) points which are safety risk, health risk, ecological risk, public welfare risk and financial risks which with this point it can help people to measure risk. Anyway, there are several risk assessment paradigm and models that are always using in studies which are (a) American Model; and (b) Canadian Model.

1Risk Assessment Application

Risk assessment can be applied in a variety of situations, for examples :

a)      Assess the benefits and cost of existing and proposed regulations;

b)      Assess benefit versus risks of new drug;

c)      Appraise benefit versus risks of pesticide use;

d)     Conduct baseline analysis of a site or facitlity to determine the need for remedial action and the extent of clean up required;

e)      Develop clean up goals for contaminants where the numerical standards have not been promulgated and to set priorities for corrective action;

f)       Develop a scientific frame work for closing down or decommisioning facilities;

g)      Provide a scientific basis for a corporate risk reduction and management programme.

Risk Assesement Advantages

There are several risk assesment advantages which are :

a)      “bottom line” public health and safety concerns addressed with a common language;

b)      Systematic framework for priotizing problems, allocating resources and avoiding  future problems;

c)      Scientific underpinnings for risk management.

 Risk Assessment Limitation

a)      No broad consensus on the purpose, the approach or the results; inadequate data, speculative and myopic nature of assumption;

b)      Few qualified professional with needed range of skills; risk assessors, engineers and economists talk different language;

Multiple events, diverse intense, unrealistic expectations, credibility problems.

Hazard Identification

Hazard Identification

      As Manuele (2010) argued we perceive hazards at varying levels of risk to our safety; what one person views as high risk, another may not. The ethical conduct and profitability of organizations relies on occupational hazards identified and managed within competent risk assessment processes. These occupational hazards can be physical, chemical or physiological that leads to workplace accidents and impact on firms’ productivity and profitability (Ramsay et al., 2006; Lees, 1996; Hollmann et al., 2001). But not all hazards are known and risk management is also about dealing with the unknown.

Hazards can be determined by using assessment methodology which is include following documents and information:

i.              Any hazardous occurrence investigation reports;

ii.            First aid records and minor injury records;

iii.          Workplace health protection programs;

iv.          Any results of work place inspections;

v.            Any employee or students complaints and comments;

vi.          Any reports, studies and test concerning the health and safety of employees;

vii.        Any reports made under the Regulation  of Occupational Safety and Health Act, 1994;

viii.      The record of hazardous substances; and

ix.          Any other relevant information.

For fire to occur there must be a source of ignition, fuel and oxygen. If all three (3) elements are present and in close proximity, then the fire risk could increase as a result. In the average premises fire hazards will fall into the first two (2) categories, while the oxygen will be present in the air in the surrounding space. Occasionally oxygen can be found in chemical form (oxidising agents) or as a gas in cylinders or piped systems.

Potential sources of ignition are :

i.              Naked flames: smokers materials, matches, pilot lights, gas/oil heaters, gas welding, cookers;

ii.            Hot surfaces: heaters, engines, boilers, machinery, lighting (for example, halogen lamps), electrical equipment etc.; and 

iii.          Hot work: welding, grinding, flame cutting. 

Other than that, hazard can be worse when the building is not really prepared for fire. Examples like :

i.              No training among the staff about fire drill and fire fighting equipment;

ii.            Firefighting device is not well equip;

iii.          Design of the building are not save for evacuation (Fig. 3); or

iv.          No proper Standard Of Procedure (SOP) when fire occurred.

There are considered several types of situation during fire such as fall from stair during evacuation of building; time evacuation; firefighting equipment working; and knowledge of occupant using firefighting equipment.

Hydrogen : Something Interest

The word of hydrogen is from the Greek word hydro (water), and genes (forming). Hydrogen was recognized as a distinct substance by Henry Cavendish in 1776.  Hydrogen is the most abundant of all elements in the universe. The heavier elements in the periodic tables were originally made from hydrogen atoms or from other elements that were originally made from hydrogen atoms. Hydrogen is available in almost every corner of the universe, amounting to nearly 90% of all the atoms. It is found in the star. Through fusion processes hydrogen are combined to form helium, and in the process release massive amounts of energy

Hydrogen is the first element in the periodic table. In normal conditions it’s a colorless, odorless and insipid gas, formed by diatomic molecules, H2. The hydrogen atom, symbol H is formed by a nucleus with one unit of positive charge and one electron. It’s one of the main compounds of water and of all organic matter, and it’s widely spread not only in Earth but also in the entire universe. At normal temperature hydrogen is a not very reactive substance, unless it has been activated somehow; for instance, by an appropriate catalyser. At high temperatures it’s highly reactive.

  

Hydrogen has the following properties:

Properties	Value
Atomic number	1
Atomic mass	1.007825 g.mol -1
Electronegativity according to Pauling	2.1
Density	0.0899*10 -3 g.cm -3 at 20 °C
Melting point	- 259.2 °C
Boiling point	- 252.8 °C
Vanderwaals radius	0.12 nm
Ionic radius	0.208 (-1) nm
Isotopes	3
Electronic shell	1s1
Energy of first ionisation	1311 kJ.mol -1
Discovered by	Henry Cavendish in 1766*

Table 1 Properties of Hydrogen

Hydrogen Uses:

There have been numerous cases of hydrogen application. Hydrogen often called the energy source of the future as it can be easily found in overabundance in the entire universe. It has been widely used in the following industries: Petrochemical, Transportation, Metal, Aerospace and weapon.

In the area of transportation, it is often used to propel everything from land speed record-breaking vehicles, as fuel cell to power passenger cars, buses and forklifts. In a lot of countries it is also used to power a lot of vehicles as a mean of alternative energy source. In a fuel cell, hydrogen and oxygen are converted into electricity through an electrochemical process, and the only waste is water. As hydrogen and oxygen are available easily in the natural environment, they can be fed continuously thus producing a continuous supply of electricity. This process is clean and environmental friendly. The electricity generated can then be used to proper motor and stored in battery if needed.

This extreme energy from hydrogen is used to fuel rockets and power life-support systems and computers in space environment. The fuel is used in the form of liquid hydrogen. Liquid hydrogen (LH2 or LH₂) is the liquid state of the element hydrogen. Liquid hydrogen is also used to power non-nuclear based submarines like Type 212 submarine, Type 214 submarine. Also concept hydrogen vehicles have been built using this form of hydrogen. [2] In Europe, there have been many applications of hydrogen in the transportation such as: Clean Energy Partnership  (CEP); and London Hydrogen Partnership (LHP).

Clean Energy Partnership (CEP) is one of the largest and most innovative hydrogen projects in Europe. It is intended to show that running on hydrogen and building a hydrogen infrastructure will be trouble-free. Various energy companies such as Linde, Shell, Statoil, Total and Vattenfall are participating in the project, as well as car manufacturers such as BMW, Daimler Benz, Ford, Opel, Toyota and Volkswagen.

Hydrogen-powered vehicles are already a reality, and mass scale production to achieve economic of scale are in the planning of almost every major car manufacturer. [5]Toyota already announced plan to launch hydrogen car in 2015. Cities like London and California have prepared for this future vehicle by launching hydrogen-based projects and passing bills to fund hydrogen stations for massive scale of use.

Hydrogen is used widely in petrochemical industries. Hydrogen is essential in today’s refining industry for upgrading heavy crude oils into refined fuels, and helping to meet increasingly tight transportation fuel specifications. The petroleum and chemical industries use a massive amount of H2 hydrogen in the refinery processes. The number one application of H2 is the processing of crude oils, and in the production of ammonia. For petrochemical plants, the key consumers are hydrodealkylation, hydrodesulfurization, and hydrocracking. H2 is used as a hydrogenating agent, particularly in increasing the level of saturation of unsaturated fats and oils (found in items such as margarine). It is also used in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid and methanol and as a reducing agent of metallic ores.

In welding and metal fabrication industries, it is also used to enhance plasma welding and cutting operations, hydrogen gas is commonly mixed with argon for welding stainless steel. It is also used in metal sintering and annealing. Metal sintering is a method for creating objects from powders, including metal and ceramic powders. It is based on atomic diffusion.

Why hydrogen was preferred?

LZ-129 Hindenburg airship was built by Zepplin Company in the late 1920s for transatlantic passenger transportation purpose. It was originally designed to be lifted by helium. As helium’s inert non-flammable nature makes it very practical to be used in lighter-than-air (LTA) flight. But helium being relatively rare and heavier than hydrogen, it was not as economical as hydrogen for mass transportation purpose due to fewer payload than it can carry. In comparison, hydrogen can carry extra 50% of useful payload then helium. For that reason, hydrogen was ultimately being used. Additional lifting capacity allows more passenger cabins to be added and more postal mails able to be carried.